Indian Society of Extension Education, Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi is a registered professional society under registration number S2504 since 1964. Indian Journal of Extension Education is the Official publication of Indian Society of Extension Education (ISEE). It publishes original research papers in the field of extension education and allied fields since its inception from 1964. Indexing Details: Scopus Indexed Journal, UGC APPROVED 2023, NAAS - 5.95, Base, Google Scholar, Crossref, Scilit, AGRIS, ICI, ASI, Ebsco,
Perceptions on the Selection of Seed Varieties for Paddy Farming in Palakkad: A Qualitative Inquiry
Paddy is an important item of food and a source of livelihood in Palakkad district of Kerala. However, it was observed that the productivity of paddy cultivation has been declining in Palakkad. Earlier research has identified some of the causes of the decline in the productivity of paddy. But the decision on the selection of seed varieties of paddy remains under-investigated in a qualitative manner. Considering this context, the present research attempted to analyse the selection-decision of seed varieties of paddy in Palakkad. To meet this goal, the present research has used a qualitative approach. The primary information was collected through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with respondents in 2025. These responses were analysed by word-cloud analytics. Based on the analysis, it was found that farmers used the traditional seed varieties of paddy in the ‘dry season’ and hybrid varieties in the ‘wet season’. The major factors that influenced their seed selection were climate conditions, satisfaction from farming, size of the holding, availability of irrigation facilities, input costs, yield capacity, market for paddy and nature of Government support. Based on these findings, the present research argues that novel paddy varieties of seeds should be developed to suit the region-specific climate and socio economic conditions of paddy farmers in Palakkad.
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Role of Institutions in Agriculture and Food Security: A Social Network Analysis of the Bonda Tribal Communities of Odisha, India
The study focuses on the Bonda tribe, a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG) residing in the ecologically fragile Bonda Hills of Odisha, India. It explores the transformative role of institutions in agriculture and food security across three altitudinally distinct villages, Kadamguda, Badbel, and Andrahal, using a sequential exploratory mixed method approach. Tools like focus group discussions, participatory rural appraisal, household surveys, and social network analysis were employed to map institutional presence and community interaction. Findings reveal varying levels of social cohesion and institutional embeddedness. Kadamguda demonstrates strong intra-village ties and effective institutional linkages, while Badbel and Andrahal reflect weaker community networks despite broader institutional outreach. The Bonda Development Agency (BDA) emerges as a pivotal actor connecting tribal households with service providers such as Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA), Watershed Support Services and Activities Network (WASSAN), Madhyam, and the Agriculture Department, Government (Govt.) of Odisha. The study highlights that institutional presence alone is insufficient; local leadership, social capital, and community trust critically shape outcomes. For institutions to be effective, interventions must prioritise cultural sensitivity, participatory governance, and inter-agency convergence. Strengthening institutional responsiveness alongside local social networks is essential for building resilient, community-driven food systems in tribal regions.
A Scale for Measuring Entrepreneurial Orientation of Farmers’ Producer Companies towards Secondary Agriculture
The Farmers’ Producer Companies in India play an important role in secondary agriculture (an entrepreneurial endeavour) through collective action. The study was conducted in 2025 and aimed to construct a scale measuring the entrepreneurial orientation of FPCs’ member farmers in the context of secondary agriculture. Sixty statements were shortlisted after screening of 84 statements using Edwards’ criteria for relevancy test. Consequently, 38 items were observed as relevant by following the criteria RW > 0.80 and MRS > OMRS. The discriminatory power of scale was further tested using the t test with a cut-off value of 1.75. The final scale covered 38 items grouped under eight dimensions, namely innovativeness, proactiveness, risk-bearing ability, achievement motivation, self-confidence, management, market, and leadership orientation. The scale showed an excellent reliability, evidenced by Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.938. Split-half and Pearson correlation results obtained 0.824 and 0.907, respectively, which also confirmed high reliability. Validity was established through expert judgment. The scale may help policymakers and researchers design evidence-based interventions to strengthen agripreneurship and rural development.
Factors Influencing Farmers’ Adaptive Capacity to Climate Change
The study was carried out in the Kendrapara district of Odisha to assess the adaptive capacity of farmers to climate change with a view to analysing the socio-economic, communication and psychological profile attributes in the year 2024. India’s agrarian economy is at risk from both gradual climatic shifts and sudden extreme weather events, emphasising the need for adaptation and resilience-building strategies. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were followed for the selection of the district, blocks, villages, and respondents, and primary data were collected from 120 respondents through a pre-tested structured interview schedule developed. Five dimensions, namely social capital, physical capital, economic capital, human capital and management capital, were considered to assess the adaptive capacity. (71.6%) of the respondents had a medium level of adaptive capacity, followed by low level (16.67%) and high level (11.67%). Among the independent variables taken, education, scientific orientation, and social participation showed a strong positive correlation with the adaptive capacity. 65% variance towards adaptive capacity was economic motivation, age, education, social participation, annual income, risk preference, farming experience, information source utilisation, extension participation, and scientific orientation.
Ecology–Economy Interface: Understanding Protected Area Awareness Among Forest-Fringe Dairy Farming Communities in Kerala
Dairy farming communities near protected areas (PAs) face challenges such as land-use restrictions, displacement, and human–wildlife conflict, often leading to negative attitudes and hindering sustainable agricultural development. Increasing awareness regarding PAs is essential to improve perceptions and promote coexistence with wildlife. This study assessed PA awareness and its determinants among 300 dairy farmers living near Silent Valley National Park, Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, and Karimpuzha Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala, India, during 2023-24. Awareness was measured using a structured scale, and determinants were analysed with an ordinal logistic regression model. Farmers generally demonstrated moderate awareness of ecological roles but limited understanding of regulatory provisions and livestock-wildlife health concerns. Most farmers from Silent Valley, Wayanad, and the overall sample had a medium level of awareness, while a higher level of awareness was more common in Karimpuzha. Key predictors of awareness included gender, education, social participation, and information-seeking behaviour. The results highlight the need for targeted, gender-inclusive awareness programmes that promote community engagement, strengthen rural education, and encourage proactive information access.
Construction of a Knowledge Test on Papaya Ring Spot Virus Management Practices
The study was conducted during 2024–25 to develop and standardise a scientifically sound knowledge test for assessing papaya farmers’ knowledge of Papaya Ring Spot Virus (PRSV) management practices in Bihar. An initial pool of 35 dichotomous items was prepared through an extensive literature review, expert consultation, and extension manuals. These items were pre-tested with 30 non-sample farmers, and item analysis was performed using the Difficulty Index, Discrimination Index, and Point-Biserial Correlation. Based on psychometric evaluation, 25 items representing preventive, cultural, chemical, and biological management practices were retained. The finalised test demonstrated high reliability, as indicated by KR-20 (0.92), split-half reliability (0.928), and Cronbach’s alpha (0.968), while content validity was confirmed through expert judgment. The standardised tool provides an objective and reliable method to assess knowledge gaps, facilitate targeted training programmes, and evaluate extension interventions. It holds potential for broader application in papaya-growing regions to strengthen PRSV management and promote sustainable papaya cultivation.
Development and Validation of a Nutrition Literacy Scale for Rural Women in India
Nutrition literacy (NL) is essential for fostering and sustaining healthy dietary behaviours. However, data on NL among rural women in India are limited, and existing measurement tools lack cultural appropriateness for this population. To address this gap, this study conducted during 2024–2025, developed and validated the Nutrition Literacy Scale for Rural Women (NLS-RW), measuring; cognitive, functional, interactive, and critical domains of NL. An initial pool of 100 statements was generated and then refined to 95 items. Relevancy testing with 60 subject matter experts using a five-point scale informed retention decisions was performed based on relevancy percentage (RP), relevancy weightage (RW), and mean relevancy score (MRS). Item analysis with a sample of 64 rural women aged 15–49 years from three districts of Jharkhand (Chatra, Ranchi, and Khunti) was conducted. Reliability was assessed using split-half correlation (Spearman–Brown adjustment) and Cronbach’s alpha. Content validity yielded a scale level content validity index (S-CVI/Ave) of 0.92, indicating excellent content validity. The final scale comprised 57 items and showed excellent internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.948; Spearman–Brown coefficient = 0.968). The NLS-RW comprehensively captures multiple dimensions of nutrition literacy among rural women.
Farmer Preparedness and Constraints for Agribusiness Opportunities at Vizhinjam International Seaport, Kerala
The study was conducted during 2024-25 in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala, to assess farmer preparedness and constraints in leveraging agribusiness opportunities associated with the Vizhinjam International Seaport. The principal objective was to identify and prioritize constraints affecting farmer participation in port-led agribusiness. A total of 100 farmers were selected using purposive and random sampling techniques. Data were collected through a structured interview schedule, focus group discussions, and expert consultations. The Garrett Ranking Technique was applied to rank the identified constraints. The results revealed that institutional and policy barriers such as frequent policy shifts and inadequate extension–export support were ranked as the most severe. Market fragmentation, weak farmer collectives, land fragmentation, labour scarcity, and digital gaps also limited preparedness. Farm-level and compliance-related challenges, including stagnant productivity and certification costs, were reported but considered relatively less critical. It was concluded that systemic and governance issues outweigh farm-level problems in determining export readiness. The study highlights the need for policy stability, farmer-centric export schemes, strengthened FPOs, ICT-enabled extension, and targeted capacity building to ensure inclusive integration of smallholders into global value chains through Vizhinjam Seaport.
Unveiling Regional Disparities in Makhana Farming: A Multidimensional Analysis from Bihar
Makhana (Euryale ferox) cultivation in Bihar accounts for 85% of India’s total production of Makhana, exhibiting pronounced regional disparities driven by agro-ecological, socio economic, and institutional factors. This study compares traditional (Darbhanga/ Madhubani) and emerging (Purnea/Katihar) Makhana-growing zones to elucidate differences in farming practices, resource endowments, and socio-behavioural attributes. In a comparative cross-sectional design, 120 Makhana growers (60 per region) were surveyed using a structured interview schedule covering landholding size, income level, training, age, education level, perception, knowledge and attitude level of farmers. Mann-Whitney U tests (α = 0.05) examined univariate regional differences; Multiple Correspondence Analysis and permutation testing (B = 999) assessed multidimensional separation and statistical significance of regional groupings. Univariate analysis revealed significant regional differences in landholding size, larger in traditional zones, perception scores higher in emerging zones, and income level. MCA showed robust grouping: the first two dimensions captured 49.38% of total variance. Though specific socio-economic and attitudinal factors appear similar, multidimensional profiling uncovers clear structural differences between traditional and emerging Makhana regions. These findings emphasize the need for region-tailored extension strategies, input support, and market interventions to foster equitable growth and resilience in Bihar’s Makhana sector.
Attitude of Agricultural Beneficiaries towards NGOs in North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
Non-government organisations play a vital role in meeting societal needs. The study, conducted in 2025, explores the influence of socio-economic factors on attitudes of beneficiaries towards NGOs engaged in agricultural development and poverty alleviation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate beneficiaries’ attitudes toward NGOs in the districts of Vizianagaram and Srikakulam in Andhra Pradesh’s North Coastal regions. A purposive sampling design was used for the selection of districts. Two NGOs from each district were selected based on their performance. 15% of the beneficiaries from each NGO were randomly selected from each district, resulting in a total of 90 farmers. So, in total, 180 farmers were selected from both districts. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that attitude scores significantly differed by education, age, income and land holding size (p<0.01). The multiple regression analysis revealed that scientific orientation, health security and housing conditions emerged as significant predictors. Respondents with basic education and those below 50 years of age showed more significant attitudes than illiterate, graduate and older individuals. Random forest analysis revealed that scientific orientation, health security, family support and social participation were key contributors.
Advancing Digital Extension Education: Development and Validation of Digital Learning Engagement Scale
Digital transformation has revolutionized extension education and professional upskilling, revealing significant gaps in learning engagement assessment within digital contexts. Conventional classroom-based scales fail to capture multifaceted digital engagement in AI-augmented, asynchronous environments, overlooking self-regulation difficulties, learner isolation, and adaptive interactions. This hampers organizations and extension practitioners from identifying disengagement early and designing evidence-based interventions. Addressing this, an 18-item Digital Learning Engagement Scale (DLES) was developed through robust psychometric evaluation, content validation by eight experts. Data was collected from 461 digital learning platform users. Exploratory factor analysis (n=227) using principal axis factoring is chosen to handle correlated engagement dimensions, identified a stable four-factor structure (behavioural, emotional, cognitive and psychological engagement) explaining 66.93 per cent of variance (KMO=0.937, Bartlett’s p < 0.001). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed excellent model fit (χ²//df = 1.34, CFI = 0.945, TLI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.065, SRMR = 0.057) with strong internal consistency (α = 0.86 -0.91), composite reliability (CR = 0.87- 0.91), convergent and discriminant validity. The DLES enables extension professionals, educators, and organizations to assess engagement, identify barriers, and implement targeted data-driven interventions, improving retention and learning effectiveness.
Mapping Determinants of Beneficiary Knowledge in TSP: Evidence for Targeted Extension Strategies
The study was conducted in 2024 to map the determinants of the knowledge levels of tribal beneficiaries enrolled under the Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) programme. A sample of 240 tribal farmers was considered as respondents under multi-stage random sampling, followed by a personal interview with a structured questionnaire for executing the process of data collection. More than half of the factors expressed a significant relationship with the knowledge level of TSP programme. Factors like education, cosmopoliteness, training participation and extension contact were prominently contributing towards knowledge level, as these, along with other factors, in total managed to elucidate about fifty-six per cent of the variation caused in knowledge level.
Effect of Soybean Digital Farmer Field School on Knowledge Levels of Respondents in Maharashtra
The study was conducted in 2023-2024 to assess the knowledge level of participant and non-participant farmers regarding Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for soybean cultivation in Ahilyanagar district, Maharashtra. An ex-post-facto research design was used, covering 150 soybean growers (75 participants and 75 non-participants) selected from fifteen villages across three talukas through multistage sampling and were assessed on their knowledge level of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)for soybean cultivation. Results showed that 76% of participants had high knowledge versus 6.67% of non-participants. Significant differences across nine key soybean cultivation aspects were confirmed by Z tests. Higher knowledge among participants may be attributed to live expert-led sessions and collaborative group learning, fostering practical skills and experience sharing. Regression analysis identified education, scientific orientation, and techno-savviness as key predictors, while traditional socio-economic factors were less influential in participants’ knowledge score on SOPs for soybean cultivation. The study highlights DFFS’s potential to overcome traditional barriers, empowering farmers through enhancement in their knowledge about SOPs for soybean cultivation, ultimately promoting sustainable soybean cultivation and improved productivity.
Scale to Measure Farmers’ Attitude towards ICT-Based Agro-Advisory Services
In recent years, rapid advancements in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have transformed agricultural extension by enabling timely, accurate, and farmer specific agro-advisories. Farmers’ attitudes play a crucial role in determining the acceptance, sustained use, and practical application of such services. Therefore, a study was undertaken in 2025 to develop and standardise an attitude scale for farmers toward ICT-based agro-advisory services. An initial pool of 110 statements was generated through literature review, farmer interactions, and expert consultations. After item screening and statistical analysis, 48 statements were finalised under six dimensions: Perceived Usefulness, Trust and Credibility, Accessibility and Convenience, Responsiveness and Personalisation, Adoption Behaviour, and General Attitude. Content validity was assessed through expert evaluation, wherein Item-level CVI values ranged from 0.80 to 0.95, and the Scale-level CVI/Average (S-CVI/Ave) was 0.91, reflecting excellent relevance. A multistage sampling procedure followed by Probability Proportional to Size (PPS) sampling was used to ensure proportional representation of farmers across selected villages. Reliability testing confirmed strong internal consistency, with Cronbach’s alpha 0.86 and Split-Half reliability (Spearman-Brown coefficient) 0.89. The validated scale can serve as a useful tool for researchers and extension stakeholders to assess farmer readiness and design more user-centric ICT advisory systems.
Prioritizing Backyard Poultry Bottlenecks Using Analytic Hierarchy Process in Punjab, India
Backyard poultry in rural India symbolizes both opportunity & adversity, offering livelihoods while battling chronic gaps in feed, healthcare & marketing. This study, conducted during 2022-2023, used the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to prioritize bottlenecks in the backyard poultry value chain. A total of 385 farmers from 11 districts of Punjab were purposively selected using the snowball sampling technique. The study revealed production constraints (priority weight: 0.250) as the leading challenge faced by respondents. Within input supply constraints, lack of access to credit and insurance support was ranked highest (global priority score: 0.109). High feed costs (0.065) and limited market information (0.037) were the most critical production and marketing challenges, respectively. Inadequate transportation (0.050) topped processing and transportation constraints. Predator attacks (0.079) were identified as the most alarming threat. The study highlights major bottlenecks requiring targeted interventions for sustainable rural poultry development.
Constraints Faced by Developmental Personnel Concerning Livelihood Programmes Across Paniya and Kanikkar Tribes, Kerala
The study examined the constraints faced by developmental personnel concerning tribal Livelihood Development Programmes (LDPs) among the Paniya community in Wayanad and the Kanikkar community in Thiruvananthapuram. Data were collected from 120 personnel between January and May 2025 using a structured schedule, and constraints were prioritised using Garrett’s ranking technique. The results showed that excessive workload was a major challenge in both regions. However, personnel working with the Paniya community reported greater institutional delays and limited field-level staffing, while those working with the Kanikkar community faced stronger political influence and poor transport connectivity. Limited exposure to indigenous knowledge and seasonal migration of household head were notable socio-cultural barriers in both contexts. The findings underline that operational constraints faced by developmental personnel vary across tribal settings and are shaped by administrative, socio-cultural, and infrastructural factors. Addressing these constraints through context-specific planning, improved institutional coordination, and strengthened field-level support is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of livelihood interventions in tribal areas.
Global Research on Nutraceutical Crops: Bibliometric Analysis and the Latent Potential of Agricultural Extension
Nutraceutical crops are gaining importance for their role in improving nutrition, supporting health, and promoting sustainable agriculture. Yet, their impact depends on how effectively this knowledge is transferred to farmers through agricultural extension. This study analysed global research on nutraceuticals and agricultural extension using 3,485 Scopus-indexed publications between 2015 and 2024, with the primary objective of assessing the role of agricultural extension in bringing nutraceuticals to the grassroots level. Bibliometric tools (Biblioshiny and VOSviewer) were used to examine publication growth, authors, contributing countries, keyword patterns, thematic clusters, and collaboration networks. The analysis reveals steady progress over time, accelerating after 2020. India emerged as the clear global leader, followed by the USA and China, with institutional participation from universities such as Charles Sturt University and King Saud University. Research activity covered two main areas: themes related to agriculture and sustainability, such as food security, climate change, and farming practices; and studies on plant-derived compounds, including phytochemicals, antioxidants, and bioactive substances. The most important finding of this study is the near absence of extension-related themes. Although the search strategy included extension terms, they did not emerge as clusters or trends, highlighting a significant research gap.
Design and Validation of a Scale to Assess Dairy Farmers’ Attitudes toward Climate Resilient Dairy Farming
The study, carried out in 2025, aimed to develop a tool for assessing dairy farmers’ attitudes toward climate-resilient dairy farming practices. For this purpose, an attitude scale was created using a Likert-type scale development method. Initially, 50 statements were compiled (both positive and negative) together and later improved in accordance with Edward’s fourteen principles for constructing scales. The overall mean relevancy score obtained was 3.191. In a non-sampling area, a pilot study involving 60 farmers was undertaken, after which 27 statements were kept for subsequent analysis. Subsequently, after calculating the t-values for all statements, 23 had t-values of 1.75 or higher. A Cronbach’s alpha of 0.732 indicated the scale’s internal consistency, and the scale’s content validity was determined based on the experts’ evaluation. This completed scale is suitable for measuring the attitude of dairy farmers toward climate-responsive dairy practices in the current research setting, and with proper contextual adjustments, it can be used in other regions as well.
Constraints Affecting the Adoption of Low-Carbon Agricultural Technologies in Kerala
The study was conducted during 2025 in the three districts of Kerala, viz., Thiruvananthapuram, Ernakulam, and Kasaragod, to identify the most critical constraints to farmers’ adoption of low-carbon agricultural technologies (LCAT). A descriptive research design was administered for data collection, and 270 farmers were selected using random sampling technique. The Garrett ranking technique was applied to quantify the severity of ten predetermined constraints influencing adoption. The results revealed that unpredictable weather, labour shortage, and high input costs were the most severe constraints limiting adoption. Economic and market-related barriers, including the lack of marketing facilities and inputs, also restricted farmers’ willingness to adopt low-carbon agricultural technologies. Knowledge-related constraints, including limited awareness of climate change and low-carbon technologies, were ranked lower, indicating that awareness alone was inadequate to drive adoption without tackling structural and financial barriers. Spearman’s rank correlation revealed the district-wise variation in the severity of constraints, emphasising the need for location-specific extension strategies, within a broader state-level policy framework to promote Kerala’s transition towards carbon neutral agriculture.
Socio-Economic Determinants of Agriculture Households in Punjab: A Principal Component Analysis
The study highlights the socio-economic determinants of agricultural families in Punjab through the main component analysis. A sample of 200 families was surveyed in 2024-25, and ten socio-economic variables were analyzed, including land ownership, income, livestock, education, family size, expansion contact, loan, mechanization, and market access. The suitability of the PCA was confirmed by a clinical test with the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin value of 0.732 and a significant Bartlett test. The analysis highlights the three major components with more than one Eigenvector value, which cumulatively explain 68.5% of the total variance. The PC1 highlights the relevance of agricultural resources, land, livestock, and income. PC2 emphasizes human and social capital, expansion services, family labour, and education. PC3, institutional and market access, mechanization, obtained loans, and proximity to markets. The multidimensional nature of rural livelihood in Punjab is exposed, where both traditional resources and institutional factors shape domestic results. The study underlines the need for integrated policies emphasizing resource efficiency, human capacity building, and institutional strengthening to ensure inclusive and sustainable agricultural development.
Development and Validation of AgTech-Enabled Market Access Scale for Hi-Tech Agriculture
Digital technologies and institutional innovations are increasingly shaping agricultural market access alongside traditional infrastructure. This study, conducted in 2025, developed and validated a multidimensional scale to systematically measure farmers’ perceptions of AgTech-enabled market access in hi-tech cultivation. The validated scale consisted of 56 items across nine dimensions: transportation infrastructure, distance to market, market information access, digital market platforms, agri-input accessibility, market institutions, storage and logistics, intermediaries, and frequency of market visits. Empirical validation demonstrated high conformity (mean = 13.64), strong relevancy ratings (>3.0), high internal consistency (Cronbach’ alpha value = 0.97), and significant dimensional distinctiveness (ANOVA, F = 3.301; p < 0.01). The mean value of Simpson’s Index of Diversity was found to be 0.834, indicating the diverse nature of the scale items across the nine dimensions. The scale provides a robust and reliable instrument for researchers, policymakers, and extension professionals to assess AgTech-enabled market access, identify barriers, and design evidence-based interventions for strengthening hi-tech agriculture.
Construction and Validation of a Knowledge Test on Pesticide Safety for Vegetable Growers
Vegetable farmers frequently utilize a diverse array of pesticides at varying doses to mitigate yield losses arising from insect pests, pathogens, and other biotic stresses. Although pesticide use has substantially contributed to enhanced crop productivity, a growing body of scientific evidence highlights that indiscriminate, excessive, or unsafe pesticide use can impose serious health hazards on applicators and consumers, while also generating adverse ecological consequences. In this context, the present study was conducted in 2025, developed and standardized a comprehensive knowledge test to assess vegetable growers’ understanding of safety measures in pesticide application. An initial pool of 82 items was generated ensuring coverage of all critical dimensions of pesticide safety. Based on relevancy scores obtained from 60 experts, 45 items were shortlisted for further evaluation. Item analysis was performed using three statistical indices: difficulty index, discrimination index, and point biserial correlation. Following established psychometric criteria, 38 items were retained with difficulty values between 30–70, discrimination indices ranging from 0.30–0.80, and a minimum point biserial correlation of 0.15. The finalized test comprised 38 items and demonstrated high internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.90, confirming its reliability for assessing knowledge on pesticide safety.
Effect of Labour Bank-Karshika Karma Sena on the Livelihood of Agricultural Labour Households in Kerala
Labour Bank-Karshika Karma Sena is an institutional intervention designed to address labour scarcity in the agricultural sector of Kerala. The study was conducted in two districts, viz Palakkad and Thrissur, based on the maximum paddy area and production. The total sample size was 176 agricultural labourers, entailing 80 participants and 96 non-participants pertaining to the year 2024. Agricultural labour work was the major contributor to employment for sample respondents. It was 71.12% and 51.44% for participants and non participants, respectively. Income from agricultural labour activities formed a sizeable share in overall household income for participants, of which around 70% of the agricultural labour income was obtained from KKS activities. The effect of Karshiaka Karma Sena participation on employment and income has been worked out using a regression adjustment model. The results infer that participation in the KKS has enabled the labourers to increase their annually employed days by 24.74 days and to increase their average annual household income by Rs. 65117. Overall, such innovative institutional intervention has opened up avenues for the sustenance of the livelihood security of agricultural labourers in the state.
Analysing Farmers’ Perceptions of Genetically Improved G3 Rohu (Labeo rohita) Fish Culture in Mymensingh District, Bangladesh
Growing G3 rohu (Labeo rohita) fish can improve nutritional stability, raise farmer incomes, boost productivity, and promote sustainable aquaculture. The study evaluated fish farmers’ perceptions of G3 Rohu culture and identified the socio-economic and contextual factors influencing these perceptions. A pre-tested structured interview was conducted with 105 fish farmers, representing 50% of the total, in the Phulpur sub-district of Mymensingh district, Bangladesh, between February and May 2023. A 5-point Likert scale with 12 statements (six positive and six negative) was used to measure perceptions. Data analysis included both descriptive and inferential statistics. Results revealed that 74.3% of farmers had a favourable perception, while 25.7% reported a highly favourable perception; no respondents indicated unfavourable views. Regression analysis revealed that, among the twelve independent variables, area under fish culture, area under Rohu fish culture, organisational participation, and extension media contact significantly and positively influenced farmers’ perception levels of G3 Rohu fish culture. Conversely, household size and social mobility showed negative effects. Furthermore, it is recommended that increasing organisational participation and extension services, while addressing socioeconomic hurdles, can support the widespread adoption of G3 Rohu breeds for long-term aquaculture flourishing in Bangladesh.
Big Five Personality Predictors of Career Readiness among Agricultural Graduate Students
Personality traits greatly influence how a graduate selects, adapts, grows and flourishes in their professional career path. The study conducted in 2025 examined the relationship between personality traits and career readiness among 120 final year agricultural graduates of Kerala Agricultural University, corresponding to a ±8% margin of error at a 95% confidence level, using the Big Five Personality framework. Results showed higher mean scores in agreeableness (3.68) and openness (3.40), with no significant gender differences (p > 0.05). Analysis identified agreeableness (β = 0.354, p = 0.001), openness (β = 0.390, p = 0.004), and conscientiousness (β = 0.300, p = 0.021) as significant predictors of career readiness. Correlational analysis showed positive associations between agreeableness (r = 0.728, p < 0.01), openness (r = 0.665, p < 0.01), and conscientiousness (r = 0.413, p < 0.05) and career readiness. Independent-samples t-tests showed no significant gender differences across the Big Five traits at the 5% level. However, conscientiousness (d = 0.45) and neuroticism (d = –0.54) showed moderate effect sizes, indicating practical gender based differences. The study highlights the value of soft skills, industry exposure, and personal and career development programmes in enhancing agricultural graduates’ career readiness and competence.
Composite Fertilizer Management Index (CMFI) among Major Field Crop Growers of Telangana
The study was conducted during 2023–2025 to develop a composite fertilizer management index (CFMI) for major field crops of Telangana, encompassing planning, purchasing, practicing, and performance dimensions. The research design involved 360 farmers across six major field crops i.e. paddy, cotton, maize, red gram, soybean, and Bengal gram. Data on 22 indicators were collected from farmers, normalised and analyzed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Kruskal-Wallis test, and Multivariate General Linear Model (GLM). Results revealed that maize farmers ranked highest in overall fertilizer management (CFMI = 0.49), followed by paddy (0.48), red gram (0.46), cotton (0.44), soybean (0.30), and Bengal gram (0.29). Significant difference in fertiliser management across crops (χ² = 123.136, p < 0.01) was found. Education, farming system, experience in selected crop cultivation, manure and fertilizer availability, social participation, extension contact, scientific orientation, sustainability orientation and economic motivation were key determinants of CFMI (R² = 0.643). The findings highlight the need to enhance farmers’ knowledge and attitudes toward efficient fertilizer practices, raise awareness of health and environmental impacts, and strengthen input availability and institutional linkages to promote balanced nutrient management and improve soil health, crop productivity, and resource use efficiency.
Occupational Health Hazards among Women Fish Vendors in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala
The informal sector constitutes a significant source of employment for women in India, particularly in coastal regions such as Kerala, where fish vending serves as a primary livelihood, and women frequently encounter substantial occupational health risks stemming from extended working hours and inadequate ergonomic conditions. The study aims to examine the multifaceted occupational health hazards affecting women fish vendors in Thiruvananthapuram district, carried out during 2025, with a particular emphasis on physical, reproductive, and psychosocial health dimensions. Data were collected from a sample of 150 women fish vendors through structured interviews, observational checklists, and a quality of life rating scale. The findings revealed a high incidence of musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue, dermatological conditions, and reproductive health concerns among the women fish vendors. Significant correlations were observed between health status and factors such as education level, household dependency ratio, income, and housing type. The study underscores the critical need for targeted policy interventions, comprehensive health education, infrastructural enhancements, and gender-sensitive occupational safety protocols to safeguard the health and dignity of women engaged in the unorganised sector.
Assessing the Perceived Training Needs of Farm Women on Modern Crop Technologies in Jhansi District
The study assesses the perceived training needs of farm women in modern crop production technologies, situated in the complex agro-economic landscape of Jhansi district. Despite their critical role in agriculture, women farmers often face barriers to accessing technical knowledge, which limits their productivity and empowerment. Using a descriptive survey design with a sample of 120 farm women from Mauranipur block, this research employed a multi-stage sampling technique and a structured interview schedule to collect data during 2022-23. The results reveal that the highest training needs were in crop storage (WS=2.23) and cattle production (WS=2.23), followed by weed control (WS=2.18) and improved crop varieties (WS=2.18). The majority of women (73.34%) fell into the medium training-need category, indicating a widespread demand for skill upgradation. Psychological variables, particularly scientific orientation (r=0.548) and risk orientation (r=0.498), emerged as the strongest predictors of training need, surpassing most socio-economic factors. Education, landholding, and income also showed significant positive correlations. These findings underscore the necessity of designing gender-responsive, needs-based extension programs that not only address technical skill gaps but also foster psychological readiness for innovation, thereby enabling more inclusive and sustainable agricultural development.
Small-scale Farmers’ Willingness to Pay for Extension Services: Evidence from Nigeria
Sustainable financing of agricultural extension services remains a major challenge among small-scale farmers in Nigeria. This study examined small-scale farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for agricultural extension services in Ikole and Oye Local Government Areas of Ekiti State, Nigeria, using cross-sectional data collected in 2023. Data were obtained through a structured questionnaire and analysed using descriptive statistics and a binary logistic regression model. Willingness to pay for extension services was measured as a binary outcome, with farmers classified as willing or not willing to pay for regular and reliable extension services. The results showed that a substantial proportion of the respondents expressed willingness to pay for extension services. The logistic regression results indicated that education level, farm size, access to extension services, and farming experience significantly influenced farmers’ willingness to pay. Age and gender were not statistically significant determinants. The farmers’ willingness to pay is closely linked to their capacity to benefit from extension services. Strengthening farmers’ awareness of the benefits of extension services and improving service delivery could enhance farmers’ willingness to contribute financially. Policy interventions aimed at improving extension service quality at the local level may promote more sustainable extension financing among small-scale farmers.
Assessment of Farmers’ Knowledge on Nutrition and Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture
Nutritional knowledge plays a vital role in shaping the dietary behaviour of individuals and communities. This study assessed farmers’ knowledge of nutrition and nutrition sensitive agriculture (NSA) in the southern Indian states of Kerala and Karnataka during 2024-25. A standardized knowledge test comprising 26 statements was developed and administered to a sample of 300 respondents. Statistical analyses, including Welch’s t test, Welch’s ANOVA, and the Games-Howell post-hoc test, were used to compare knowledge scores across states and districts. In addition, regression analysis was employed to examine the relationship between farmers’ knowledge and socio-economic characteristics. State- and district-level comparisons indicated that farmers from Kerala had higher knowledge levels than those from Karnataka. Regression analysis revealed that factors such as education, gender, age, source of information, number of trainings attended, and family size significantly influenced farmers’ knowledge. These disparities underscore the necessity of awareness campaigns and capacity-building programs on nutrition and NSA, particularly through educational institutions, rural organizations, and mass media platforms.
Dietary Diversity and Nutritional Status of the Oraon Tribal Women: An Anthropometric Measurement Approach
The study was conducted among the Oraon tribal women of Chhota Nagpur Plateau, comprising Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, during 2024-25. Using multi-stage random sampling, 400 respondents were selected. The data concerning dietary diversity was collected using a structured interview schedule. Anthropometric measurement tools, including BMI and MUAC, were employed to measure nutritional status. Only 22 per cent of the respondents met the minimum dietary diversity criteria, and 78 per cent of women had an inadequate nutritional intake, eating less than five defined food groups. A Welch’s ANOVA test highlighted significant variation in dietary intake across selected districts. Only 37.75 per cent of the women had normal BMI, whereas 48.75 per cent were affected by chronic energy deficiency, and a transition towards obesity was evident. 73.50 per cent of women were in the undernutrition category, defined by a MUAC cut-off below 22.8 cm. A comparison of nutritional status across selected districts highlighted no significant difference. The Pearson correlation analysis indicated a significant positive relationship between BMI and MUAC. The findings highlighted the efforts to address malnutrition in Oraon tribal women and enhance women’s nutritional outcomes through kitchen gardening, nutrition sensitive agriculture, and effective implementation of government nutrition programs.
Factors Associated with Perception and Knowledge of Punjab’s Farm Youth about Stubble Management
The study, conducted in 2025, examined how socio-personal variables were associated with the perception and knowledge of farm youth toward stubble management, and how family and farming-related characteristics were associated with families’ involvement in stubble burning. A structured questionnaire was administered to 720 respondents selected through multistage purposive and random sampling from five agro-climatic zones of Punjab. Data were analysed using chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests to determine associations between variables. Gender and caste showed significant associations with both perception and knowledge. School type and medium of education showed no significant association with either variable. Family type was significantly associated with knowledge but not with perception. Among family and farming variables, caste and landholding size were significantly associated with the family’s involvement in stubble burning, while family size, family educational status, and number of earning members showed no significant relationship. Overall, the results indicated that a combination of socio-personal characteristics and structural agricultural factors shaped stubble management behaviour. The study concluded that enhancing perception and knowledge among rural youth, particularly youth enrolled in Punjabi-medium and government schools, and those belonging to the general caste and large landholding families are essential for fostering long-term behavioural change.
Coverage of Agricultural Issues in Leading Indian Hindi Dailies: A Content Analysis
The majority of India’s population is directly or indirectly engaged in the agricultural sector. Currently, Indian agriculture is facing various challenges, but timely information dissemination is one of them. The present study was conducted to examine the agricultural issues published in two leading Hindi newspapers, i.e. Dainik Bhaskar and Amar Ujala. Editorials, opinion columns, and feature articles published in the Panipat edition of Haryana State during January 2023 and December 2023 were selected for the study. The study concluded that India’s highest-circulated Hindi newspapers, Dainik Bhaskar and Amar Ujala, published a limited number of agricultural issues. Both dailies have given the highest importance to national-level agricultural issues.
Critical Factors Hindering the Millet Entrepreneurial Sector: Strategic Interventions for Enterprise Development
The study was conducted to develop strategies in the context of the entrepreneurial climate of the millet-based enterprises on the basis of identified constraints faced by millet entrepreneurs and in the state of Telangana. The data were collected using a structured interview schedule from 35 millet entrepreneurs, 150 millet growers and 30 research scientists comprising 215 respondents from Telangana during the 2023-24. The constraints and strategies were divided into four categories, i.e., technical, financial, marketing and personal. The major constraints revealed were a lack of millet processing, non-remunerative prices for the produce, farmers getting minimal shares and significant stress due to uncertain returns, respectively. The strategies using analytical hierarchical process like setting up processing centres, advocating subsidies on the purchase of machinery and raw materials, integrating millets into government programmes and recognising and rewarding resilient millet entrepreneurs, respectively emerged. The study identified unique scenarios indicating the valuable perspectives of all stakeholders included in the study.
Protected Vegetable Cultivation in Haryana: An Analysis of Marketing Efficiency and Major Constraints
The study presents channel-wise marketing efficiency, the major marketing and production constraints faced by protected vegetable cultivators in Haryana. Using the Yamane sampling formula, a sample of 300 farmers cultivating cucumber, tomato, and capsicum was selected and primary data was collected through a pre-tested interview schedule during 2024. Marketing efficiency across major marketing channels was estimated using Acharya Modified Method, while Garrett Ranking technique was employed to prioritise key marketing and production constraints. The results revealed that direct to consumer marketing channels consistently recorded the highest marketing efficiency and farmer’s share, whereas channels involving commission agents were the least efficient due to higher marketing costs and intermediary margins. The Garrett Ranking analysis indicated that absence of minimum support price (MSP), high price fluctuations and lack of organised markets were the most severe marketing constraints. On the production side, labour shortages, high input costs, limited lifespan of polyethylene sheet and environmental pressures significantly affected profitability. The paper highlights that the issues of marketing and production are interlinked and jointly influences income stability and decision-making of protected vegetable cultivators. Strengthening market linkages, infrastructure and technical support is therefore is essential to enhance the economic viability of protected vegetable cultivation in Haryana.
Assessing Climate Change Adaptation Strategies among Livestock Rearers in Bundelkhand Region, India
The study was conducted in the year 2024-25, assessing both the degree of implementation of adaptation measures and the factors that influence these strategies among livestock rearers in the Banda district of Uttar Pradesh and Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh. A total of 320 livestock rearers were chosen as respondents using a multi-stage sampling method. Eighteen adaptation strategies were identified using a Climate Change Adaptation Index (CCAI), and subsequently analysed through factor analysis and ordinal logistic regression to ascertain the determinants of adaptation behaviour. Findings revealed that maintaining fodder banks (mean score: 1.825), seasonal livelihood diversification (1.6906), and vector control measures (1.4625), were the most frequently adopted strategies. Conversely, preventive healthcare, low-cost housing improvements, and feeding adjustments reflected lower levels of adoption. Factor analysis identified three components, accounting for 72.22 per cent of the total variation. Ordinal logistic regression showed that herd size, community participation and education levels were favourably correlated with enhanced adaptation, but family size showed negative significance. A majority of respondents (66.87%) exhibited a moderate level of adaptability. The results highlighted the disparate adaptive capacities among livestock rearers and the need for targeted extension interventions in the Bundelkhand region.
Global Research on Digital Platforms in Rural Knowledge Transfer During 2003- 2025: A Bibliometric Analysis
The study mapped global research on digital platforms in rural knowledge transfer using Scopus-indexed publications published between 2003 and 2025. A total of 251 peer-reviewed documents were analysed using descriptive indicators, citation patterns, and network visualisations. The analysis indicated a consistent increase in research output after 2015, with notable peaks in 2021 and 2023, reflecting the growing adoption of ICTs, mobile applications, and e-learning in agricultural extension. Highly cited publications demonstrated strong scholarly influence in digital learning and technology-enabled advisory frameworks. Country-level analysis identified the United States, China, and the United Kingdom as leading contributors, supported by key institutions such as Wageningen University and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). Keyword co-occurrence mapping revealed dominant themes related to digital agriculture, mobile-based extension, AI-enabled learning, and knowledge management, alongside emerging areas such as digital literacy and participatory knowledge systems. Despite India’s extensive digital agriculture initiatives, the limited presence of high-impact Indian studies highlights a critical research gap. The findings underscore the need for context-specific and inclusive digital extension research in India, while outlining future prospects focused on impact evaluation, digital literacy, and participatory platform design.