HYPOTHESES FOR REACTIVATION RECURRENCE AND REINFECTION RECURRENCE OF COVID-19
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.48165/Keywords:
COVID-19, reactivation, recurrence, reinfection, SARS-COV2Abstract
COVID-19 virus of the family Coronaviridae, is an enveloped virus with RNA nucleic acid. The virus spread rapidly from Chinaand was declared a pandemic by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020. Studies show that some patients who recovered from COVID-19 had a recurrence that arose concern among the scientists. The main purpose of this review is to provide potential hypotheses for the recurrence of COVID-19 infection in both clinical reactivation and reinfection. In reactivation recurrence, hypotheses such as hereditary immunodeficiency, the balance between angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and angiotensin-converting enzyme2 (ACE2), the presence of extracellular exosomes were presented, and in the field of reinfection recurrence, hypotheses such as a false primary RT-PCR test deals with positive, low load of COVID-19 virus, acquired immune system defects and mutations in viral RNA that alter viral epitopes were presented in this review. From the hypotheses presented in this paper, it can be concluded that an imbalance between ACE / AngII / AT1R and ACE2 / Ang1-7 / MasR and the defects in the immune system, can cause defects in the proliferation of NK cells and T lymphocytes,and exosomes contain viral mRNA ultimately leads to reactivation recurrence of the disease. Reinfection recurrence of the COVID-19 may be as a result of the primary false positive report in RT-PCR test, low viral load and inactivation of the immune system, efects in the acquired immune system, and mutations in virus RNA.
Downloads
References
Abbas, A.K., Lichtman, A.H. and Pillai S. 2014. Cellular and Molecular Immunology. E-book. Elsevier Health Sciences, San Francisco, USA.
Abd El-Aziz, T.M. and Stockand, J.D. 2020. Recent progress and challenges in drug development against COVID-19 coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) - An update on the status. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 83: 104327. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104327].
Ahmadpoor, Pedram and Rostaing, L. 2020. Why the immune system fails to mount an adaptive immune response to a Covid‐19 infection. Transplant International, 34: [https://doi.org/10.1111/tri.13611].
Albini, A., Di Guardo, G. Noonan, D.M. and Lombardo, M. 2020. The SARS-CoV-2 receptor, ACE 2, is expressed on many different cell types: implications for ACE-inhibitor- and angiotensin II receptor blocker-based cardiovascular therapies. Internal and Emergency Medicine, 15: 759- 766.
Alizargar, J. 2020. Risk of reactivation or reinfection of novel coronavirus (COVID-19). Journal of the Formosan Medical Association, 119(6): 1123. [10.1016/j.jfma.2020.04.013]. Behl, T., Kaur, I., Bungau, S., Kumar, A., Uddin, M.S., Kumar, C., Pal, G., Shrivastava, S.K., Zengin, G. and Arora, S. 2020. The dual impact of ACE2 in COVID-19 and ironical actions in geriatrics and pediatrics with possible therapeutic solutions. Life Sciences, 257: 118075. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118075].
Razieh Yazdani et al.
Calvo, V. and Izquierdo, M. 2020. Inducible polarized sSecretion of exosomes in T and B lymphocytes. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21(7): 2631. [https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21072631].
Carroll, K.C., Butel, J. and Morse, S. 2015. Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg's Medical Microbiology, 27e. McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, California, USA.
Chahar, H.S., Bao, X. and Casola, A. 2015. Exosomes and their role in the life cycle and pathogenesis of RNA viruses. Viruses, 7: 3204-3225.
Crenshaw, B.J., Sims, B. and Matthews, Q.L. 2018. Biological function of exosomes as diagnostic markers and therapeutic delivery vehicles in carcinogenesis and infectious diseases. Nanomedicines (IntechOpen). [http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80225].
Datta, P.K., Liu, F., Fischer, T., Rappaport, J. and Qin, X. 2020. SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and research gaps: Understanding SARS-CoV-2 interaction with the ACE2 receptor and implications for therapy, Theranostics, 10: 7448-764.
Dawood, A.A. 2020. Mutated COVID-19, may foretells mankind in a great risk in the future. New Microbes and New Infections, 35: 100673. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2020.100673]. Elrashdy, F., Aljaddawi, A.A., Redwan, E.M. and Uversky, V.N. 2020. On the potential role of exosomes in the COVID-19 reinfection/reactivation opportunity. Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, 39: 5831-5842.
Emam, S.E., Ando, H., Abu Lila, A.S., Shimizu, T., Ukawa, M., Okuhira, K., Ishima, Y., Mahdy, M.A. and Ishida, T. 2018. A novel strategy to increase the yield of exosomes (extracellular vesicles) for an expansion of basic research. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 41: 733- 742.
Flint, M., Maidens, C., Loomis-Price, L.D., Shotton, C., Dubuisson, J., Monk, P., Higginbottom, A., Levy, S. and McKeating, J.A. 1999. Characterization of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein interaction with a putative cellular receptor, CD81. Journal of Virology, 73: 6235-644.
Hassanpour, M., Rezaie, J., Nouri, M. and Panahi, Y. 2020. The role of extracellular vesicles in COVID-19 virus infection. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 85: 104422. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104422].
Hatano, R., Ohnuma, K., Yamamoto, J., Dang, N.H. and Morimoto, C. 2013. CD26-mediated co stimulation in human CD8(+) T cells provokes effector function via pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Immunology, 138: 165-172.
Kai, H., and Kai, M. 2020. Interactions of coronaviruses with ACE2, angiotensin II, and RAS inhibitors - Lessons from available evidence and insights into COVID-19. Journal of Hypertension Research, 43: 648-654.
Karar, J. and Maity, A. 2011. PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in angiogenesis. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 4: 51. [https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2011.00051].
Kato, T., Fahrmann, J.F., Hanash, S.M. and Vykoukal, J. 2020. Extracellular vesicles mediate B cell immune response and are a potential target for cancer therapy. Cells. 9: 1518. [https://doi.org/10.3390/cells9061518].
Koyama, T., Platt, D. and Parida, L. 2020. Variant analysis of SARS-CoV-2 genomes. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 98(7): 495-504.
Li, Q., Wu, J., Nie, J., Zhang, L., Hao, H., Liu, S., Zhao, C., Zhang, Q., Liu, H. and Nie, L. 2020. The impact of mutations in SARS-CoV-2 spike on viral infectivity and antigenicity. Cell, 182: 1284- 1294.
Lin, Y., Wu, J., Gu, W., Huang, Y., Tong, Z., Huang, L. and Tan, J. 2018. Exosome-liposome hybrid nanoparticles deliver CRISPR/Cas9 system in MSCs. Advanced Science (Weinh), 5.4: 1700611. [https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201700611].
Liu, J., Li, X., Lu, Q., Ren, D., Sun, X., Rousselle, T., Li, J. and Leng, J. 2019. AMPK: A balancer of the renin-angiotensin system. Bioscience Reports, 39(9): BSR20181994. [https://doi.org/10.1042/BSR20181994].
Ohadian, M.S. 2020. A review on currently available potential therapeutic options for COVID-19. International Journal of General Medicine, 13: 443-467.
Osman, A.A., Al Daajani, M.M. and Alsahafi, A.J. 2020. Re-positive COVID-19 PCR test: Could it be a reinfection? New Microbes and New infections, 37: 100748. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nmni.2020.100748].
Petracca, R., Falugi, F., Galli, G., Norais, N., Rosa, D., Campagnoli, S., Burgio, V., Di Stasio, E., Giardina, B. and Houghton, M. 2000. Structure-function analysis of hepatitis C virus envelope CD81 binding. Journal of Virology, 74: 4824-4830.
Platten, M., Hoffmann, D., Grosser, R., Wisplinghoff, F., Wisplinghoff, H., Wiesmüller, G., Schildgen, O. and Schildgen, V. 2021. SARS-CoV-2, CT-values, and infectivity - Conclusions to be drawn from side observations. Viruses, 13(8): 1459. [https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081459].
Razeghian-Jahromi, I., Zibaeenezhad, M.J., Lu, Z., Zahra, E., Mahboobeh, R. and Lionetti,V. 2020. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2: A double-edged sword in COVID-19 patients with an increased risk of heart failure. Heart Failure Reviews, 26: 371-380.
Rossi, G.P., Sanga, V. and Barton, M. 2020. Potential harmful effects of discontinuing ACE inhibitors and ARBs in COVID-19 patients. e-Life, 9. e5727. [https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.5727]. Roy, S. 2020. COVID-19 reinfection: Myth or truth? Comprehensive Clinical Medicine, 2: 710-713. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s42399-020-00335-8].
Sarzani, R., Giulietti, F., Di Pentima, C., Giordano, P. and Spannella, F. 2020. Disequilibrium between the classic renin-angiotensin system and its opposing arm in SARS-CoV-2-related lung injury. American Journal of Physiology - Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology, 319: 325- 336. [https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00189.2020].
Sims, B., Farrow, A.L., Williams, S.D., Bansal, A., Krendelchtchikov, A. and Mathews, Q.L. 2018. Tetraspanin blockage reduces exosome-mediated HIV-1 entry. Archives of Virology, 163: 1683- 1689. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-018-3737-6].
Turner, J.M. and Kodali, R. 2020. Should angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors ever be used for the management of hypertension? Current Cardiology Report, 22: 95. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-020-01352-8].
Turnpenny, P.D., Ellard, S. and Cleaver, R. 2020. Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics. Elsevier Health Sciences, Edinburgh, England.
Vaduganathan, M., Vardeny, O., Michel, T., McMurray, J.J.V., Pfeffer, M.A. and Solomon, S.D. 2020. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibitors in patients with Covid-19. New England Journal of Medicine, 382: 1653-1659.
Wang, J., Chen, S. and Bihl, J. 2020a. Exosome-mediated transfer of ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) from endothelial progenitor cells promotes survival and function of endothelial cell. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2020: 1-11. [https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4213541].
Wang, P., Nair, M.S., Liu, L., Iketani, S., Luo, Y., Guo, Y., Wang, M., Yu, J., Zhang, B. and Kwong, P.D. 2021. Antibody resistance of SARS-CoV-2 variants B. 1.351 and B. 1.1. 7. Nature, 593: 130-135.
Wang, Y., Zhang, L., Sang, L., Ye, F., Ruan, S., Zhong, B. Song, T., Alshukairi, A.N., Chen, R. and Zhang, Z. 2020b. Kinetics of viral load and antibody response in relation to COVID-19 severity. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 130(10): 5235-5244.
Yin, Y., Hua, H., Li, M., Liu, S., Kong, Q., Shao, T., Wang, J., Luo, Y., Wang, Q. and Luo, T.J. 2016. mTORC2 promotes type I insulin-like growth factor receptor and insulin receptor activation through the tyrosine kinase activity of mTOR. Cell Research, 26: 46-65.
Zemlin, A.E. and Wiese, O.J. 2020. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and the renin-angiotensin system: A closer look at angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Annals of Clinical Biochemistry, 57(5): 339-350.
Zheng, Z., Yao, Z., Wu, K. and Zheng, J. 2020. Patient follow‐up after discharge after COVID‐19 pneumonia: Considerations for infectious control. Journal of Medical Virology, 92: 2412-2419.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
How to Cite
